This article is a comprehensive translation from the original Spanish document, “Manuales de buenas prácticas del proyecto PirosLife: La recuperación de grandes carnívoros,” which reflects conservation efforts and data up to 2020.

Unable to find an English-language version, I have translated this excellent resource to ensure it reaches a wider audience. You can see the original Spanish document here.

The Piros life project website that ran from 2014 to 2018 is here.

The document explores the critical role of large carnivores in maintaining ecological balance and the significant initiatives in Spain aimed at conserving and restoring populations of wolves, bears, and lynxes. Through detailed analysis of habitat preservation, conflict mitigation, and successful reintroduction projects, this translation offers valuable insights into the ongoing challenges and opportunities in large carnivore conservation.

Introduction

The perception of large carnivores by society has changed radically in recent decades. Once considered pests threatening livestock and people, large carnivores have now become symbols of nature, admired and respected by most of society. Consequently, we have moved from an era of persecution to one of conservation and restoration. Currently, all species of large carnivores are strictly protected under European law (Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive), except for the wolf north of the Duero River (Annex V of the Directive), which may be subject to management measures as long as the population remains in a favorable conservation status.

• In the first part, we introduce the large carnivore species we will discuss (the wolf and bear, but also the Iberian and Eurasian lynx) and summarize the characteristics that make the conservation and restoration of their populations a challenging path. In the following chapter, we present their situation in Europe and Spain, showing how our large carnivores have responded favorably to conservation measures applied in recent years.
• The second part discusses the biological aspects of their conservation and restoration, such as habitat preservation and corridors, the need to reduce unnatural mortality, and lessons learned from translocation projects that have restored some populations that were extinct or unrecoverable, such as the bear in the Pyrenees.
• The third part addresses the social aspects of large carnivore conservation. Their acceptance by society is essential for their long-term survival, and we describe the factors working against them, such as livestock damage and other human property, which shape their perception by different public sectors.
• Finally, we introduce the benefits large carnivores bring us, from environmental services to promoting rural development through tourism. Our bears, wolves, and lynxes give us more than they take, and this should encourage us to continue our efforts in conserving and restoring their populations so they remain part of our landscapes.

2. Characteristics of Large Carnivores and Conservation Needs

2.1. Large Spaces to Maintain Viable Populations

Large carnivores have extensive home ranges, which they need to cover the areas where the prey they hunt throughout the year can live. Most of them are territorial species, defending their home range from other individuals or family groups. For example, wolves live in packs, where they do not tolerate neighboring packs. The Eurasian and Iberian lynxes are solitary animals with intrasexual territoriality, meaning they defend their territory from individuals of the same sex but tolerate those of the opposite sex. Bears, on the other hand, do not seem to have exclusive territories, possibly because they often eat seasonal and abundant foods during specific times of the year.

In Spain and other regions of similar latitude, wolf packs (consisting of 5 to 10 individuals) can have highly variable territories, but under favorable ecological conditions, they occupy between 150 and 250 km². Although bears do not defend territories, they usually live at densities of about 5 individuals per 100 km². In these circumstances, to support a population of 500 wolves (between 50 and 100 packs), at least 10,000 to 25,000 km² of suitable habitat would be required. A contiguous population of 500 bears would need about 10,000 km² of favorable habitat, which is not easy to find, especially considering that high-quality habitats are often interspersed with unfavorable areas and densely populated regions.

2.2. Livestock Damage and Human-Wildlife Conflict

Predation on livestock is the primary cause of persecution for most large carnivore species, particularly the wolf. Bears, though less predatory, can also attack livestock (in addition to beehives, fruit trees, and some crops). The Eurasian lynx is a predator of sheep, while the Iberian lynx is much less harmful, though it occasionally attacks lambs or chickens.

At a European scale, a recent study promoted by the AGRI Committee of the European Parliament examined the impact of large carnivores on sheep across most countries on the continent. For example, between 2012 and 2016, at least 19,500 sheep were killed by wolves, 1,200 by bears, and 400 by Eurasian lynxes across a group of EU countries. These figures demonstrate that wolves (13,000-14,000 individuals in the EU) are the most efficient predators of sheep, followed by bears (15,000-16,000) and Eurasian lynxes (7,000-8,000).

The management of livestock determines the impact of large carnivores. In countries like Norway and France, where sheep often graze with little or no protection, each wolf kills more than 30 head of livestock annually, while in most other European countries, the figures range between 1 and 14. Bears also take advantage of unprotected sheep, with each bear killing 10 to 20 head of livestock per year in Norway and France, compared to 1 or 2 sheep per bear annually in other EU countries. The disparity is even greater for the Eurasian lynx, which kills 16 sheep annually per individual in Norway, compared to 0 to 2 sheep per lynx in EU countries.

2.3. Competition for Game Species

One of the problems with large carnivores is that they hunt prey that is sometimes also desired by hunters. The more carnivorous and predatory the species, the more significant this problem becomes. Therefore, the species most targeted by hunters is the wolf, especially in Northern Europe, where the impact of wolves on the availability of moose for hunters has been evaluated. The results indicate a significant decrease in the number of moose hunted in wolf territories compared to areas without wolves.

In Spain, the problems between wolves and hunters are generally not significant, but there are some notable exceptions. For instance, in Sierra Morena, wolves have been largely exterminated illegally to prevent their predation on deer that are raised in high densities on private, fenced estates, fed, and watered as needed for commercial hunting events held annually.

2.4. Human Safety

Large carnivores very rarely attack people. It is estimated that one person is killed each year by large carnivores in Europe (excluding Russia), usually due to bear attacks in Romania. Despite this, the actual risk posed by large carnivores is minimal.

The problem is not so much the danger that wolves and bears represent to people, but rather the fear that these animals evoke. News of bears or wolves in certain areas sometimes causes waves of fear that lead hikers and tourists to cancel their hotel reservations out of fear of being attacked by these predators. However, studies show that these fears are unfounded. For example, there have been no known wolf attacks on people in Europe in the last 40 years, even though the population is around 17,000 individuals.

Bears are the only European large carnivores that occasionally attack people, but even so, the danger they pose is very small. In Spain, there are no known cases of people being killed by bears, although there have been some minor incidents in recent years.

3. Status of Large Carnivore Populations

3.1. The Wolf

3.1.1. The Wolf in Europe and Worldwide

The wolf (Canis lupus) has a broad global distribution across Eurasia and North America. Despite being eradicated from a significant portion of its range, the global population is estimated at between 200,000 and 250,000 individuals.

In Europe, following a dramatic reduction in populations during the 1960s and 1970s, wolves are now increasing in number and expanding their distribution. According to the latest data published in the IUCN Red List, there are likely around 13,000 to 14,000 wolves in the 28 member states of the European Union, with the number in the geographic region of Europe (excluding Russia) probably exceeding 17,000, representing a clear increase in the last decade. Consequently, the species is listed as “Least Concern” at both the European level and within the EU28. Of the 10 established wolf populations in Europe, all are stable or increasing except for the Sierra Morena population, which is considered biologically extinct.

In recent years, the largest increase in wolves has occurred in Central Europe, where an average annual growth rate of 36% has been observed, the highest known in any population worldwide. Wolves returned to Germany in 2000, and by 2019 there were already 100 packs in the country. Additionally, wolves from this population have expanded into western Poland and have reproduced for the first time in several centuries in Denmark and even in the Netherlands, one of the most densely populated countries in the world.

The Italian wolves, which were on the brink of extinction in the 1970s, have recovered, reached France in 1992, and have spread across the country to exceed 500 individuals in recent years. Although the breeding packs in France are located in the Alps, wolves have also been appearing in the Pyrenees, particularly in the eastern part, since the beginning of the 21st century. These isolated individuals are the ones seen in Catalonia and other areas on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees.

3.1.2. The Wolf in Spain

Unlike other Western and Central European countries, wolves were not exterminated in Spain, but their numbers were greatly reduced during the 20th century. In 1970, there was a population of only a few hundred individuals in the northwest of the country, with some isolated groups surviving in the west and south of Spain. As persecution diminished over the last five decades, the northwestern population began to recover, with the number of packs increasing and expanding southward. The northern population crossed the Duero River around the year 2000, and by 2019 five breeding packs had been detected in the province of Madrid. At the same time, the small groups that survived in the 1970s in the west and south of Spain became extinct, including the Sierra Morena population.

Today, there are at least 300 wolf packs in Spain, with an additional 60 packs in northern Portugal, forming the large Iberian wolf population. This Iberian population is the largest in Western Europe, surpassed only by the Carpathian population in Eastern Europe and, of course, by the Russian populations.

Since the early 21st century, isolated wolves have been appearing in the Pyrenees, particularly in Catalonia. Genetic analyses have shown that these animals originate from the Franco-Italian population thriving in the Alps. Most of the wolves that arrive are males, which may partly explain why, after 20 years of sporadic presence, they have yet to reproduce. Some individuals have also appeared in Aragón, and a solitary male has settled in the Monegros Desert between Huesca and Zaragoza, where it has been present since at least March 2017. Why all the wolves detected in eastern Spain come from the Franco-Italian population, while no dispersing individuals from the Iberian population have been found, is a question that remains unanswered.

3.2. The Bear

3.2.1. The Bear in Europe and Worldwide

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) has historically seen a reduction in its distribution area in North America, Europe, and Asia, and the species has disappeared from North Africa. However, it remains abundant across three continents and continues to be one of the most widely distributed terrestrial mammals globally, with a total population exceeding 200,000 individuals.

In Europe, brown bears are found in 22 countries, grouped into 10 populations. The largest is in the Carpathians, with over 8,000 bears, followed by the Scandinavian population (about 3,500 bears) and the population spanning the former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Greece (over 3,000 bears).

In Western Europe, the brown bear has been exterminated from most of its range, with four isolated populations remaining in the Apennines (Italy), the Trentino (Italian Alps), the Pyrenees, and the Cantabrian Mountains. In the Pyrenees and the Alps, bears were on the brink of extinction in the last decades of the 20th century. With only a few individuals left, the populations were restored through reinforcement with animals from Slovenia. In the Apennines, after many decades of conservation programs, about 50 bears remain, but the population is either barely increasing or doing so very slowly. Of these four isolated brown bear populations in Western Europe, only the one in the Cantabrian Mountains shows a clear trend towards natural recovery.

3.2.2. The Bear in the Cantabrian Mountains

In Spain, the largest population is found in the Cantabrian Mountains, in the provinces of Asturias, León, Palencia, Cantabria, and to a lesser extent, Lugo, with young dispersing males reaching Orense and Zamora and occasionally reaching Portugal. The Cantabrian population was on the brink of extinction in the 1980s and 1990s. However, efforts over the last 30 years have led to its recovery, eliminating some of the main threats, such as poaching, and significantly reducing conflicts with traditional activities. The connectivity between the two subpopulations has also improved due to the abandonment of mining and forest recovery in the main corridors, restoring the genetic flow between the western subpopulation (the most numerous) and the eastern subpopulation, after almost a century of isolation.

Today, the Cantabrian bear population is estimated at between 300 and 350 individuals, leading the IUCN to downgrade its threat level from “Critically Endangered” to “Endangered.”

3.2.3. The Bear in the Pyrenees

Like other Western European populations, the Pyrenean bears declined due to persecution, and by the mid-20th century, the population fragmented into three groups. By 1980, it was believed that only about six bears remained in the central Pyrenees, from where they disappeared in the early 1990s. By the end of the century, the situation seemed irreversible, with a few males and a single female left in the western Pyrenees, between Navarre and Aragón, and the southern French region of Béarn. The Pyrenean population, which possibly numbered 200 bears at the beginning of the 20th century, was biologically extinct.

In recent years, the Pyrenean population has been partially restored thanks to a bear translocation project from Slovenia, which will be discussed in more detail later. After the release of 11 wild Slovenian bears, there are currently a minimum of 40 individuals on both sides of the Pyrenees, all descended from the Slovenian bears and their offspring. Only one bear retains genes from the native Pyrenean population, the male Cannelito, who turned 16 years old in January 2020. Genetic studies show that Cannelito is the result of a cross between Cannelle, the last native Pyrenean female, and Nere, a male born in the Pyrenees to the Slovenian bear Ziva, released in Haute-Garonne in 1996 while pregnant, and an unknown Slovenian male.

In France, bears inhabit areas from the western valleys of Aspe and Ossau to the forests of the Carlit massif in the eastern Pyrenees. Some individuals visit the forested mountains in northeastern Andorra. On the Spanish side, bears range from the Roncal Valley in Navarre to the Cerdanya region in Lleida-Girona. Throughout the Pyrenees, bears move across a vast area, though the most favored areas are located in two nuclei. In Spain, the western subpopulation extends through the Roncal Valley (Navarre), Ansó and Hecho (Huesca), and consists of two males and two females recently translocated from Slovenia. The central subpopulation, where most of the bears and all females with cubs are found, is mainly located in the forests of the Aran Valley and Pallars Sobirà in Lleida. Bears occupy a total area of approximately 7,400 km².

The monitoring of Pyrenean bears is carried out in a coordinated manner between French, Andorran, and Spanish technicians, forming the Transboundary Bear Monitoring Group in the Pyrenees (GSTOP), which meets periodically to share data. This information is collected through various methods, such as conducting itineraries and waiting, locating signs of presence, monitoring and studying attacks on livestock and beehives, automatic photography or filming systems, and genetic analysis of hair and droppings. Using this combined approach, family groups are detected and monitored each season. In 2011, two reproductive females with one and three cubs were located; in 2012 and 2013, two females each year with one and two cubs; in 2014, five females with a total of seven cubs; and in 2015, three females with six cubs. In 2016, five litters with 10 cubs were detected, and in total, 41 bears were identified, two in the western subpopulation and 37 in the eastern one. In 2017, 48 bears were identified, with ten cubs born to six females. In 2018, 45 bears were detected, with five cubs from only two females. In 2019, six females with 13 cubs were identified.

3.3. The Eurasian Lynx in Eurasia and Spain

Historically, the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) was distributed across most of Europe and the northern half of Asia, but in recent centuries, it has been eradicated from most of Western and Central Europe, except for the Carpathians. The largest European populations are in the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland, the Baltic states, and European Russia. There is an isolated and critically endangered population (40 or 50 individuals) in the Balkans, and in recent decades, reintroductions have been carried out in Switzerland, Slovenia, Italy, the Czech Republic, Austria, Germany, and France. It is estimated that there are about 9,000 to 10,000 Eurasian lynxes in Europe (excluding Russia). The global population is well over 70,000 individuals and is not considered threatened.

In Spain, there are no Eurasian lynxes, but several studies suggest that the species may have been present in the Basque Country and the Cantabrian Mountains until the early 19th century, and in the Pyrenees until more recent times. However, there is no definitive evidence of this.

3.4. The Iberian Lynx

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) has been considered by the IUCN as the world’s most endangered feline. It is smaller than the Eurasian lynx, with adult males weighing 13 kg and females 10 kg. Iberian lynxes are endemic to Spain and Portugal, and their main prey is the rabbit.

See my 2024 update on the Iberian Lynx here.

Illegal hunting, habitat destruction, and traffic accidents reduced their populations during the 20th century, but the collapse of rabbit populations in the 1980s due to several diseases brought the lynx to the brink of extinction. During the second half of the 20th century, the lynx experienced a 98% reduction in both its population and its distribution area. In 2002, only 94 lynxes remained in the Iberian Peninsula (and therefore in the world), living in two isolated populations in Doñana National Park (Huelva) and Andújar (Jaén), occupying a total area of 500 km².

Since 1994, several conservation projects have been carried out with the support of LIFE funds to combat the main threats and promote the species’ recovery in its historical range. The main actions focused on improving habitat and reinforcing rabbit populations. Given that Iberian lynxes generally live on private estates, a key measure has been signing agreements with landowners and hunting associations on estates where the lynx was present and where it has been reintroduced. These agreements allowed the implementation of necessary measures to improve the habitat and strengthen rabbit populations over a vast area.

See my 2024 update on the Iberian Lynx here.

Thanks to these actions, in 20 years, the species has shown a spectacular increase in both the number of individuals and its distribution area. In 2012, 323 lynxes were counted in the two wild subpopulations of Doñana and Andújar. Since then, the population has continued to increase. In 2016, 482 lynxes were counted, of which 111 were mature females, and in 2018, there were at least 686 lynxes in three Spanish autonomous communities (Andalucía, Castilla-La Mancha, and Extremadura) and one area of Portugal, with a total area of 3,064 km². The most recent census conducted in 2019 found 820-830 lynxes. As a result, the IUCN changed its threat category from “Critically Endangered” to “Endangered” in 2015.

4. Conservation of Large Carnivore Habitats

Experience shows that there are no magical solutions for conserving large carnivores. The basic strategies established decades ago—habitat preservation and reducing human-caused mortality—remain valid today. We already know that large carnivores generally require extensive, relatively well-conserved areas where they can find food, shelter, and where human population density is low enough to reduce interactions with people.

4.1. The Wolf’s Habitat

Among European species, the wolf has the least demanding habitat requirements. Until the 1980s, it was believed that the wolf’s natural habitat consisted of the most remote and uninhabited areas. However, in recent years, we have seen them adapt to highly humanized areas of Spain, Italy, and Germany. The relentless persecution they faced relegated wolves to the most sparsely populated parts of the planet. But as society’s tolerance for the species has increased, wolves have demonstrated their ability to live near humans.

In the early 20th century, their global distribution included most of Eurasia and North America, and they still occupy a vast range, from the northernmost regions of the planet to the arid deserts of Arabia and Israel. Adaptability is one of the wolf’s greatest strengths.

Well-known publications describe the habits of wolves in the High Arctic, just a thousand kilometers from the North Pole (80° N), in an environment with few prey, four months of total darkness in winter, and temperatures as low as -53°C, where packs have home ranges of over 6,600 km². Further south, the island wolves of British Columbia (Canada) feed on salmon and other marine products, swim across sea channels up to five kilometers wide, and live “with two paws on land and the other two in the ocean.”

Besides these extreme cases of adaptation, wolves are found in most ecosystems of the Northern Hemisphere, including tundra, boreal and mixed forests, and steppes. In Spain, wolves can live in a wide variety of habitats, from the solitary mountains of the Cantabrian range to the cereal plains of Castile or the densely populated regions of western Galicia. This is possible because wolves can supplement their natural behavior of hunting wild ungulates by incorporating livestock and carrion into their diet.

The existence of scavenger wolf populations in Italy, Israel, the cereal plains of Castile crossed by highways, or western Galicia—where wild ungulates are scarce—demonstrates that these animals do not need pristine environments to survive. For this reason, Spanish wolves range continuously from the Galician coast to the outskirts of Madrid, occupying virtually all possible habitats, some of them teeming with wild ungulates, while in others, they survive by scavenging the remains of livestock they find during their extensive nocturnal movements.

4.2. The Iberian Lynx Cannot Live Without Rabbits

At the opposite extreme, we find the Iberian lynx, a species endemic to the peninsula that requires habitats where rabbits are abundant. The Iberian lynx appears to have evolved alongside rabbits, and where there are no rabbits, there are no lynxes. The species is native to the Mediterranean forest and scrubland, which underwent significant transformations in the second half of the 20th century because it was considered an unproductive environment. In many cases, lynx ecosystems were cleared to create pine and eucalyptus plantations or transformed into large-scale agriculture, such as those surrounding Doñana National Park today.

But the Iberian lynx’s tragedy occurred with the drastic reduction of rabbit populations. Rabbit populations in the Iberian Peninsula have experienced an extraordinary decline over the last 50 years. Although systematic data is lacking, it is estimated that current levels are less than 5% of those in the 1950s. In general, rabbits are now very scarce and have even disappeared entirely from marginal areas. The main cause of this decline is the diseases that have plagued rabbits over the past 60 or 70 years. Myxomatosis entered the Peninsula in the 1950s and spread explosively, with catastrophic effects. The disease continues to cause mortality, though losses are lower than in the early years because rabbits have developed some immunity. In the late 1980s, a new epidemic, rabbit hemorrhagic disease, emerged, causing a rapid decline in rabbit populations within a few years. The reduction was estimated at 80% in Doñana and up to 90% in some areas of Sierra Morena.

For this reason, many of the conservation actions for the Iberian lynx over the past 25 years have focused on repopulating rabbits, improving habitat to benefit lagomorphs, or signing agreements with private estates and hunting associations to prohibit rabbit hunting.

4.3. Habitat Availability for Bears in the Pyrenees

The brown bear is a circumboreal species that lives in southern Europe, almost always in mountainous areas that alternate between forests and subalpine environments. Its diet is highly varied and includes grasses, herbs, roots, berries, nuts, insects, mammals, carrion, and more. In the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, bears only live in relatively well-conserved environments with low human population density.

After the near extinction and subsequent recovery of a bear population in the Pyrenees, many people have questioned whether there is enough high-quality habitat in the Pyrenees to support a bear population. Brown bears live at low densities and need extensive areas to meet their ecological needs. Many groups argue that the Pyrenees are so humanized that they cannot support a significant bear population. However, scientific studies show the opposite.

In recent years, a group of French researchers has published an analysis conducted on both sides of the Pyrenees to evaluate the quality of available habitat. The scientists found that large-scale habitat selection patterns are similar in both Iberian bear populations, allowing for the creation of habitat quality maps in the Pyrenees using a model developed in the Cantabrian Mountains. In the Pyrenees, high-quality habitats (which they called source habitats) cover an area of 12,289 km². Many of these optimal habitats lack bears, so these mountains could support a much larger number of individuals than currently exist. Extrapolating from the densities found in 2003 in the Cantabrian Mountains, the researchers estimated that the two sides of the Pyrenees could support at least 110 bears in the optimal habitats alone. But considering that the current bear density in the Cantabrian Mountains has doubled from the estimates made more than 15 years ago, the number of bears that could live in the high-quality habitats in the Pyrenees could also double.

The study also emphasized that optimal habitats could connect the central and western bear nuclei. If we add suboptimal areas that can also support bears to the optimal habitats, we conclude that the Pyrenees could support a significant bear population, perhaps several hundred individuals.

4.4. From Practice to Theory: Protecting Bear Habitat

To ensure the conservation of bears, it is not enough for the habitat to exist; it must also be adequately protected. The best way to ensure habitat quality and the tranquility necessary for bears is through the designation of Critical Areas in the Recovery Plans that each autonomous community must develop. Additionally, proper zoning in the Master Plans for the Use and Management of protected natural areas and in the management plans of the Natura 2000 network is advisable. These designations are included in European, national, and most regional regulations, and if properly developed, they can help preserve the homes of Cantabrian and Pyrenean bears.

4.5. Ensuring Connectivity of Populations

As we have seen throughout this document, large carnivores require extensive areas to survive, and it is difficult for high-quality habitat patches to be distributed continuously across the humanized European landscapes. Within the distribution area of most populations, lower-quality habitats are not permanently occupied by animals. To maintain populations over time without fragmentation or loss of genetic variability, it is necessary to ensure the connection between the main nuclei. The corridors that maintain these connections are known as ecological corridors.

The extinction process of large fauna during the 19th and 20th centuries fragmented many large carnivore populations. Such is the case of the Iberian lynx, which by the early 21st century was reduced to just two populations located at the northern and southern extremes of Andalusia, incapable of naturally coming into contact with each other. For this reason, some lynxes from Sierra Morena were translocated to Doñana to improve the dire genetic condition of the last individuals living there.

In the case of the wolf, some populations were also isolated in western and southern Spain, such as the Sierra de San Pedro (Extremadura) and Sierra Morena nuclei. Both have disappeared in recent decades, as they could not be rescued by individuals from the large northwestern population of the Peninsula.

4.6. Reconnecting the Bear Nuclei in the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees

Fragmentation also affected the Cantabrian bear population, which was divided into two nuclei, the western and eastern, in the early 20th century, with no individual connection between them. The smaller eastern subpopulation rapidly lost genetic variability, the females gave birth to fewer cubs than those in the western subpopulation, and the bears seemed destined for extinction. The fragmentation of the Cantabrian bear population occurred in the center of the range, the area that connected the Meseta with Asturias, historically the most populated area within the bear range and the one with the most infrastructure. The construction of the A-66 highway, which connects León and Oviedo in the 1980s and 1990s, further complicated matters by adding a significant barrier between the two sectors. Consequently, all genetic studies have differentiated two subpopulations, whose individuals have exclusive alleles that allow them to be assigned to either the western or eastern nuclei.

However, the isolation was not absolute. The first genetic studies revealed that in 1992 an adult male had crossed from the western zone to the eastern zone, where he was found severely injured and died months later.

In the mid-2000s, a team from the University of Oviedo discovered that three males had crossed the corridor separating the two subpopulations, and in 2008 they detected the first “hybrid” bears in the eastern sector, resulting from the crossing of a western male and an eastern female. But in any case, the genetic profile of the western and eastern bears was clearly different, indicating that there was no regular reproduction between individuals from the two nuclei.

But this situation has recently improved, as demonstrated by a study conducted in recent years. In 2013 and 2014, 152 samples of bear hair and droppings were collected, almost all in the eastern sector, and 26 different individuals were identified in this nucleus, representing only a sample of the total population. The most notable finding was that 14 of them (more than half) were hybrid individuals with ancestors from both subpopulations; seven were western migrants, and only five were pure eastern bears, i.e., with no western ancestors. The conclusion is that in just a few years, the eastern subpopulation has gone from being almost isolated—except for a few isolated cases of hybridization—to one where the majority of individuals already show the genetic footprint of western ancestors. Naturally, the genetic variability of the eastern subpopulation has increased, going from being one of the lowest in the world to simply low. Perhaps in response to this genetic improvement, several females in the eastern Cantabrian nucleus are now having litters of three cubs, something that had not happened since the population began to be closely monitored 30 years ago. For now, this natural connection is only occurring through the dispersal of males, as no case of a female moving to another subpopulation has been detected. This genetic flow seems to be asymmetric, as the western subpopulation is much larger and denser, with more bears moving from west to east, but new genetic studies are being conducted to confirm this.

To compensate for the reluctance of females to disperse, a western female was recently translocated to the eastern nucleus. In the spring of 2019, a bear cub was found abandoned in the Asturian council of Santo Adriano. The cub was rescued, treated, and fed in isolation to prevent it from becoming imprinted on humans, and in November of the same year, it was released in the Picos de Europa, in the eastern nucleus of the Cantabrian range. This accelerated the genetic flow between the two nuclei. Given that young females are so philopatric, it may take many decades for them to reappear in areas where they had disappeared. This translocation is a remarkable case of genetic reinforcement of the smaller Cantabrian bear nucleus. The female was observed in perfect condition in January 2020.

As mentioned earlier, in the Pyrenees, bears are divided into two nuclei with suitable habitat distributed uniformly between them. The separation into two nuclei is due to a demographic discontinuity, as most releases were made in the central nucleus, but in reality, the habitat does not present obvious barriers or low-quality areas. If there were enough bears, the population would probably be distributed more or less continuously between the western and central subpopulations. In the case of the Pyrenean bear, it would be worth discussing whether the concept of a “corridor” is appropriate to describe the discontinuity between the two nuclei. But whatever term we use, habitat continuity and the fight against fragmentation remain essential concepts for the conservation of the bear in the Pyrenees and large carnivores in general. It would be necessary to study and evaluate the translocation of Cantabrian bear females to the Pyrenees.

5. Reducing Mortality

Most large carnivores have seen their distribution areas reduced historically simply because we have killed them. Whether to protect livestock from predation, because they caused fear, or because they were highly prized game species, humans have spent centuries killing as many bears, wolves, and lynxes as possible. Around the 1970s, society’s perception of these animals began to change, and the first voices calling for their conservation emerged. Today, almost no one calls for the extermination of these species, which, on the contrary, have become symbols of wild nature and enjoy the support of most of society.

The first step in conserving large carnivores is to stop killing them, which has been achieved through protective laws, but also with a mix of monitoring to detect violators and persuasion to convince rural residents that they can coexist with these species. This latter approach includes compensating for damages and undertaking activities to eliminate conflicts wherever possible and to promote an economy sustained by the presence of large carnivores.

5.1. The Wolf

The wolf has perhaps been the most hated species by all livestock societies. No other carnivore causes as much damage to livestock, and consequently, their persecution was supported by all governments at least until the mid-20th century, carried out by any means available, including widespread use of poison. As a result, wolves have disappeared from most of Western Europe and the southern sector of North America below the Canadian border. However, in the last three or four decades, partial protection has allowed the species to persist in areas where it survived and to increase and expand, reclaiming some of the lost ground. This recovery has been possible because the wolf is a highly adaptable, social, and resilient canid with great dispersal and reproductive capacity. The key factors have been its high adaptability and fecundity. Thanks to this, wolves have naturally reoccupied large parts of Central European countries with growth rates of up to 36% annually.

The best way to reduce wolf mortality is to try to avoid or minimize the damage they cause to livestock and, of course, to compensate for those damages, thereby reducing the animosity of many rural communities.

5.2. The Bear in the Cantabrian Mountains

The bear has not been as universally hated as the wolf but has always been a prized game species. When the reduction of bears in the Cantabrian Mountains was noticed, authorities fully protected them in 1973, but this did not stop their mortality. It was the active conservation campaigns over the last 30 years that significantly reduced illegal killings and led to the population’s recovery.

In fact, the main conservation measures in the Cantabrian Mountains have been aimed at curbing illegal or accidental deaths. The reduction in mortality that began in the 1990s was what preserved the small existing populations and allowed their partial recovery, with an annual growth rate of 10%. The data leaves no doubt about the decrease in mortality. Between 1980 and 1994, 18 deaths were detected in the eastern subpopulation and 36 in the western one. But between 1995 and 2009, only 7 cases of bear deaths were confirmed in the western subpopulation and 9 in the eastern one. The data is clear: in the second 15-year period, the number of bear deaths decreased compared to the first, despite more intense monitoring and a larger population. This explains the recent recovery of the Cantabrian population.

Between 2000 and 2014, 27 bear deaths were confirmed in the Cantabrian Mountains, an average of two per year. This is still a significant number, but a major improvement over previous decades. Although the causes of death are diverse, the most common are still illegal killings and poaching, followed by accidental deaths from traps, poison, and road accidents. During this period, seven cases of poisoning were detected in the western subpopulation, and the presence of poison in two of these cases was linked to the illegal killing of bears. Additionally, six cases of bear deaths due to hunting were recorded, three of them involving the accidental shooting of bears mistaken for wild boar.

Recent improvements in bear mortality have been achieved through a combination of legal protection, increased surveillance, the implementation of conservation plans, and more effective awareness and education programs. Compensation for damages, the promotion of sustainable tourism, and other economic incentives have also played a role in reducing conflicts between bears and local communities.

6. Reintroductions and Reinforcements of Carnivores

Reintroductions and reinforcements are conservation tools used to restore species that have disappeared or are on the brink of extinction in certain areas. These actions involve releasing individuals into the wild to establish or bolster populations. While reintroductions are applied when a species is absent from an area, reinforcements are used to increase the numbers and genetic diversity of a dwindling population.

6.1. Lessons Learned from the Reintroduction of Bears in the Pyrenees

The most prominent example of reintroduction in Spain is the case of the Pyrenean bear. By the end of the 20th century, the Pyrenean brown bear population was on the verge of extinction, with only a few individuals remaining. To avoid the disappearance of the species in the Pyrenees, a reintroduction project was launched, releasing bears from Slovenia, where the species is abundant.

Between 1996 and 1997, three bears (two females and one male) were released in the central Pyrenees. This action marked the beginning of a slow recovery of the bear population in the region. In 2006, a new reinforcement was carried out with five more Slovenian bears (four females and one male). The results of these reintroductions were positive, leading to an increase in the bear population, which now numbers at least 40 individuals, including some cubs born in the wild.

However, the project also faced significant challenges. One of the main problems was the social conflict generated by the reintroductions, particularly in the French Pyrenees, where some sectors of the local population opposed the presence of bears, citing concerns over livestock losses and personal safety. The conflict was exacerbated by the lack of adequate communication and involvement of local communities in the decision-making process.

Another challenge was ensuring the genetic diversity of the reintroduced population. While the Slovenian bears were genetically diverse, the small number of individuals released meant that inbreeding could become a problem in the future. Ongoing genetic monitoring and potential further reinforcements will be necessary to maintain a healthy population.

The experience of the Pyrenean bear reintroduction highlights the importance of careful planning, community involvement, and long-term monitoring in any reintroduction or reinforcement project. Successful restoration of large carnivore populations requires not only biological considerations but also addressing social and economic impacts on local communities.

6.2. Wolf Reintroductions in Europe

Wolf reintroductions have also been carried out in various parts of Europe, with varying degrees of success. One of the most famous cases is the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone National Park in the United States, which has often been cited as a model for similar projects in Europe.

(NOTE FROM THE TRANSLATOR OF THIS ARTICLE: There is no evidence supporting the above comment that any reintroduction program for the wolf has been carried out in Europe. See here for more info. I am assuming that this is a typing error and should read the US rather than Europe)

In Europe, wolf populations have largely recovered naturally through dispersal from existing populations rather than through active reintroduction. For example, wolves have recolonized areas of Germany, France, and the Alps after being absent for many decades. In these cases, legal protection, habitat conservation, and the availability of prey have been key factors in their successful return.

However, in some regions, active reintroductions have been considered or carried out to restore wolf populations. These efforts have often been controversial, facing opposition from livestock farmers, hunters, and other groups concerned about the impact of wolves on livestock, game species, and human safety.

The success of wolf reintroduction projects depends on several factors, including the availability of suitable habitat, the presence of a stable prey base, and the social acceptance of wolves by local communities. Experience has shown that reintroductions should be accompanied by measures to prevent and mitigate conflicts, such as compensation for livestock losses, the use of protective measures for livestock, and public education campaigns to promote coexistence with wolves.

6.3. The Role of Translocations in the Recovery of the Iberian Lynx

The Iberian lynx is another species that has benefited from translocation efforts. As the world’s most endangered feline, the Iberian lynx faced near extinction in the early 21st century, with fewer than 100 individuals remaining in two isolated populations in southern Spain. Conservation efforts, including habitat restoration, captive breeding, and translocations, have been crucial in the recovery of this species.

Translocations have played a key role in increasing the genetic diversity of existing populations and establishing new populations in areas where the species had disappeared. For example, lynxes from the Sierra Morena population have been translocated to other areas of Andalusia, Extremadura, and Castilla-La Mancha to bolster existing populations and create new ones.

These translocations have been carefully planned and monitored to ensure the success of the reintroduced individuals. Factors such as the availability of prey (particularly rabbits), habitat suitability, and potential threats (such as road traffic) have been considered in the selection of release sites.

The success of the Iberian lynx translocations has been remarkable, with the population increasing to over 800 individuals by 2019. However, continued efforts are needed to ensure the long-term survival of the species, including ongoing habitat management, monitoring of reintroduced populations, and addressing potential threats such as disease and human-wildlife conflict.

6.4. Challenges and Opportunities in Carnivore Reintroductions

Reintroducing and reinforcing large carnivore populations is a complex process that requires careful consideration of biological, social, and economic factors. While these projects offer significant opportunities for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration, they also pose challenges that must be addressed to ensure their success.

One of the main challenges is achieving social acceptance of reintroduced carnivores. Large carnivores often evoke strong emotions, and their presence can lead to conflicts with local communities, particularly in areas where livestock farming and hunting are important economic activities. To address these challenges, it is essential to involve local stakeholders in the planning and implementation of reintroduction projects and to provide support for conflict mitigation measures, such as compensation for livestock losses and the use of non-lethal deterrents.

Another challenge is ensuring the long-term viability of reintroduced populations. This requires not only adequate habitat and prey availability but also genetic diversity and connectivity between populations. Monitoring and adaptive management are crucial components of any reintroduction project, allowing for adjustments to be made based on the outcomes and changing conditions.

Despite these challenges, reintroductions and reinforcements offer significant opportunities for the conservation of large carnivores. By restoring these species to areas where they have been lost, we can contribute to the recovery of ecosystems, enhance biodiversity, and promote the coexistence of humans and wildlife. These projects also provide valuable lessons that can inform future conservation efforts, both for large carnivores and other threatened species.

7. Livestock Damage and Perception of Large Carnivores in Spain

7.1. Livestock Damage Caused by Large Carnivores

One of the main challenges in conserving large carnivores is the damage they can cause to livestock. This is a significant issue, particularly in rural areas where livestock farming is a vital economic activity. The presence of predators such as wolves, bears, and lynxes can lead to the loss of livestock, which in turn fuels negative attitudes towards these species and can result in retaliation by local communities.

Wolves are the most significant predators of livestock, particularly sheep. They are responsible for the majority of livestock losses attributed to large carnivores in Spain. The level of damage varies depending on the region, the type of livestock, and the methods used to protect them. For example, in areas where livestock is left unattended in open pastures, the losses can be substantial. However, in regions where preventive measures, such as the use of guard dogs, night enclosures, or electric fences, are implemented, the damage is significantly reduced.

Bears also cause damage to livestock, although their impact is generally less severe than that of wolves. Bears are omnivorous and tend to attack livestock less frequently, but when they do, they can cause considerable damage, particularly to cattle and sheep. Additionally, bears can cause damage to beehives, fruit trees, and crops, which further contributes to the conflict with local communities.

Lynxes, particularly the Iberian lynx, generally cause less damage to livestock compared to wolves and bears. The Iberian lynx primarily preys on rabbits, which are their main food source. However, in some cases, particularly when rabbit populations are low, lynxes may attack poultry or young livestock, such as lambs. While these incidents are relatively rare, they can still create negative perceptions among livestock farmers.

7.2. Compensation for Livestock Losses

To address the conflict between large carnivores and livestock farming, various compensation schemes have been implemented in Spain. These programs aim to compensate farmers for the losses they incur due to predation by wolves, bears, and lynxes. Compensation schemes are an essential tool in gaining the support of local communities for carnivore conservation and in reducing the likelihood of illegal retaliation against these species.

In general, compensation is provided by regional governments, and the amount paid depends on the type of livestock lost, the circumstances of the attack, and the region in which the loss occurred. For example, in areas with a high density of wolves, compensation payments may be higher due to the increased risk of predation.

However, the effectiveness of compensation schemes is sometimes questioned. Delays in processing claims, insufficient compensation amounts, and the perceived complexity of the application process can lead to frustration among farmers. Additionally, some farmers feel that compensation does not fully address the economic impact of livestock losses, particularly in cases where the loss of breeding animals or repeated attacks can have long-term consequences for their livelihoods.

To improve the effectiveness of compensation schemes, there have been calls for more streamlined processes, higher compensation rates, and greater support for preventive measures that can reduce the likelihood of attacks.

7.3. Public Perception of Large Carnivores

The perception of large carnivores among the general public and specific stakeholder groups plays a critical role in the success of conservation efforts. In Spain, public attitudes towards wolves, bears, and lynxes vary widely depending on factors such as geographic location, cultural background, and personal experiences.

In general, large carnivores are viewed positively by urban populations, who often see them as symbols of wilderness and biodiversity. For these groups, the presence of wolves, bears, and lynxes is associated with the conservation of natural heritage and the protection of ecosystems. However, these positive attitudes are often less prevalent in rural areas, particularly among those whose livelihoods are directly affected by the presence of large carnivores.

Among rural communities, particularly livestock farmers and hunters, large carnivores are often viewed with suspicion or hostility. Livestock farmers are concerned about the economic impact of predation, while hunters may see wolves and other predators as competitors for game species. In some cases, the presence of large carnivores is also linked to fears for personal safety, although the actual risk of attacks on humans is extremely low.

Efforts to improve public perception of large carnivores have included educational campaigns, community engagement, and the promotion of sustainable tourism that highlights the presence of these species as an asset rather than a threat. Programs that involve local communities in conservation efforts, such as monitoring and habitat restoration, have also been successful in building support for large carnivore conservation.

Overall, changing public perception is a gradual process that requires ongoing communication, education, and the demonstration of tangible benefits to local communities. By addressing the concerns of those most affected by the presence of large carnivores and involving them in conservation initiatives, it is possible to build a more positive and supportive environment for the protection of these species.

The Benefits of Large Carnivores

8.1. Ecological Benefits

Large carnivores, such as wolves, bears, and lynxes, play a crucial role in maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems. As apex predators, they help regulate prey populations, which in turn affects the structure and function of ecosystems.

Regulation of Prey Populations: Large carnivores keep herbivore populations, such as deer and wild boar, in check. This regulation prevents overgrazing and helps maintain the diversity and health of vegetation. For example, in areas where wolves have been reintroduced, there has been a noticeable reduction in the overpopulation of herbivores, leading to the recovery of forested areas and the return of other species that depend on these habitats.

Scavenging and Nutrient Cycling: Bears, in particular, contribute to nutrient cycling through their scavenging activities. By consuming carcasses and spreading seeds through their scat, they help distribute nutrients across the ecosystem and promote the growth of vegetation. This process supports the overall productivity and biodiversity of the environment.

Control of Mesopredators: The presence of large carnivores can also help control the populations of smaller predators, known as mesopredators, such as foxes and raccoons. This is important because an overabundance of mesopredators can lead to declines in prey species, such as ground-nesting birds and small mammals. By maintaining a balance between predators and prey, large carnivores contribute to the stability and resilience of ecosystems.

8.2. Economic Benefits

In addition to their ecological importance, large carnivores can provide significant economic benefits, particularly through the promotion of sustainable tourism and rural development.

Wildlife Tourism: The presence of large carnivores can attract tourists interested in wildlife viewing and nature experiences. For example, bear-watching tours in the Cantabrian Mountains and wolf-tracking excursions in the Sierra de la Culebra have become popular attractions for both domestic and international visitors. This type of ecotourism generates income for local communities, creates jobs, and supports the conservation of natural areas.

Rural Development: By promoting wildlife tourism and other nature-based activities, large carnivores can contribute to the development of rural areas that might otherwise struggle economically. The establishment of visitor centers, guided tours, and other related services can provide new opportunities for local businesses and help diversify the rural economy. Additionally, the presence of large carnivores can enhance the cultural and natural heritage of a region, increasing its appeal as a tourist destination.

Support for Agriculture: While large carnivores can pose challenges for livestock farming, they can also provide indirect benefits by helping to control the populations of wild herbivores, such as deer and wild boar, which can cause significant damage to crops. By keeping these populations in check, large carnivores can reduce the need for costly and environmentally harmful control measures, such as culling or fencing.

8.3. Cultural and Educational Benefits

Large carnivores hold a special place in the cultural heritage of many regions. They are often seen as symbols of wilderness, strength, and resilience, and they feature prominently in folklore, literature, and art.

Cultural Identity: In many areas, the presence of large carnivores is closely linked to local identity and traditions. For example, the bear has long been a symbol of strength and endurance in the Pyrenees, and its return to the region has been celebrated by some as a sign of the resilience of both the natural environment and the local culture. Similarly, the wolf is an important figure in the folklore of many rural communities in Spain, where it is often associated with wisdom, cunning, and survival.

Educational Opportunities: Large carnivores also provide valuable opportunities for education and research. The study of these species can help us better understand the complexities of ecosystems, the challenges of conservation, and the importance of biodiversity. Educational programs focused on large carnivores can inspire a new generation of conservationists and foster a deeper appreciation for the natural world.

Public Awareness: The presence of large carnivores can also raise public awareness of broader environmental issues, such as habitat loss, climate change, and the need for sustainable development. By drawing attention to the plight of these iconic species, conservation efforts for large carnivores can serve as a catalyst for broader environmental action and inspire greater public engagement in conservation.

8.4. The Importance of Continued Conservation Efforts

The benefits of large carnivores extend far beyond their immediate impact on ecosystems. They contribute to the health and diversity of the environment, support rural economies, enrich cultural heritage, and provide valuable educational opportunities. However, these benefits can only be realized if we continue to invest in the conservation and restoration of large carnivore populations.

This requires ongoing efforts to protect and restore habitats, reduce human-wildlife conflicts, and promote coexistence between large carnivores and local communities. It also involves recognizing and addressing the challenges faced by those living in close proximity to these species, including the economic and social impacts of their presence.

By working together to conserve large carnivores, we can ensure that they continue to play their vital role in the natural world and that the benefits they provide are enjoyed by future generations.

9. Conclusions

The conservation and recovery of large carnivores in Spain, as in the rest of Europe, represent significant challenges but also offer important opportunities for biodiversity and rural development. The presence of species such as the wolf, bear, and lynx contributes to the ecological balance of natural areas and enhances the richness of our natural heritage.

In recent decades, we have witnessed remarkable progress in the recovery of these species. The wolf has expanded its range in Spain, the Iberian lynx has made a spectacular comeback from the brink of extinction, and the bear populations in the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees are slowly recovering thanks to concerted conservation efforts.

However, these successes should not lead to complacency. The survival of large carnivores remains threatened by several factors, including habitat loss, illegal hunting, road traffic accidents, and conflicts with human activities, particularly livestock farming. Effective management strategies are essential to mitigate these threats and to ensure the long-term viability of these species.

Key elements for successful conservation include:

1. Habitat Protection and Connectivity: Ensuring that large carnivores have access to extensive, connected habitats is crucial for their survival. Protected areas and ecological corridors must be maintained and expanded to facilitate the movement of individuals between populations, preventing genetic isolation and enhancing the resilience of these species.
2. Conflict Mitigation: Reducing conflicts between large carnivores and human activities is essential for gaining public support for their conservation. This includes implementing preventive measures, such as the use of guard dogs, electric fences, and night enclosures for livestock, as well as providing fair and timely compensation for damages caused by carnivores.
3. Public Engagement and Education: Public perception of large carnivores plays a critical role in their conservation. Educational programs and awareness campaigns can help foster a better understanding of the ecological roles of these species and the benefits they provide to ecosystems and society. Involving local communities in conservation efforts and decision-making processes is also vital for building trust and cooperation.
4. Scientific Research and Monitoring: Ongoing research and monitoring are essential for understanding the population dynamics, behavior, and ecological needs of large carnivores. This information is critical for developing effective conservation strategies and for adapting management practices in response to changing conditions.
5. Collaboration and Partnerships: The conservation of large carnivores requires collaboration between government agencies, conservation organizations, scientists, local communities, and other stakeholders. International cooperation is also important, particularly for species that cross national borders, such as the bear populations in the Pyrenees.

In conclusion, the conservation of large carnivores in Spain is a complex but rewarding endeavor that requires a multifaceted approach. By protecting habitats, reducing conflicts, engaging the public, conducting research, and fostering collaboration, we can ensure that these iconic species continue to thrive in our landscapes, contributing to the ecological, economic, and cultural richness of our country.

Ronda Today

Everything you need to know before you visit Ronda “The city of dreams” in Andalucia. https://www.rondatoday.com/

Visit Cádiz

Planning on visiting Cádiz? Tourist information. Monuments. Hotels. Activities. City guides: https://visitingcadiz.com/

The Caminito del Rey

Find tickets for the Caminito del Rey: https://www.caminodelrey.es/

Wildside Holidays – Spain

Take a trip on the Wildside! Discover the wildlife and nature of Spain, its Natural and National Parks and find the top wildlife, activity and walking holiday companies.

Iberia Nature Forum

Struggling with identifying those bugs and beasties? Why not check out the Iberia nature Forum! https://iberianatureforum.com/

clive

I’ve been living in this lovely area of Western Andalucia for the last 20 years or so and dedicate most of my time to the running of English language tourist information websites for the towns of Cádiz, Ronda, Grazalema, the famous or infamous Caminito del Rey, and also Wildside Holidays, which promotes sustainable and eco-friendly businesses running wildlife and walking holidays in Spain.